Wild Game

ALL ABOUT WILD GAME

Game animals and birds fall into two categories, wild and farm raised.

Game species raised on farms under appropriate regulations can be sold.
Wild game species, that can be legally hunted under Federal or State regulatory authority, cannot be sold
It can be harvested for personal consumption. If you have questions about the harvest of wild game species, contact your State fish and wildlife agencies, or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for Federal regulations on migratory species.

Food Safety Of Farm-Raised Game

Venison, antelope, boar, pheasant, and other exotic species are now farm raised in the United States, and are under voluntary USDA inspection. For an increasing number of restaurants and home diners, exotic meats are becoming more commonplace. The Hotline has been getting inquiries about these food animal species. Included here are answers to questions about game animals.

What is Game?
Game are wild animals and birds. Farm-raised game are originally wild species of animals and birds that have been raised for sale under existing State regulations. Large native game animals living in America include antelope, buffalo, bear, caribou, deer, elk, moose, reindeer, and wild boar. Elsewhere in the world, even rarer varieties eaten by humans are camel, elephant, kangaroo, wild goats, wild sheep, zebra, and other species.

Great Venison Recipes.

If you like venison for it's flavor and nutrition qualities you will love this book!
Learn More

Small game animals include alligator, rabbit, squirrel, beaver, muskrat, opossum, raccoon, armadillo, porcupine, and other species.

Game birds include grouse, guineafowl, partridge, squab (young pigeon), quail, pheasant, wild ducks, wild geese, wild turkey, and other species. Rock Cornish hens – thought by many consumers to be game birds – are actually young domesticated chickens.

Background on "Venison" Game Animals
In culinary terms, "venison" can be meat from deer, elk, moose, caribou, antelope, and pronghorn. However, when this meat is offered for sale, the name of the specific animal must be specified on the package label.

Deer live in woodlands all over Europe, Asia, northern Africa and America. There are many deer species of various sizes but all the males grow antlers. The meat is lean and has a gamey flavor that can be made milder if soaked overnight.

Elk meat tastes like mild (almost sweet) beef, with only a very faint venison flavor. Elk can be substituted equally for venison in most standard venison recipes. Elk are from North America, Europe, and Asia.

Moose is the largest member of the venison family standing about 6½ feet at the shoulder. It's native from North America. The meat is similar to elk.

Caribou (reindeer) are slightly larger than white-tailed deer. Both males and females have antlers. The meat is somewhat sweeter than other venison. They live primarily in North America and Siberia.

Antelope are currently farmed in Texas, where black buck and nilgai antelope, native to Africa, are allowed to roam on huge preserves. Males are called bucks, bulls, or stags; females, does or cows; and unweaned young are fawns or calves. Antelope meat is leaner, but similar in taste, to that of deer.

Pronghorn (once classified as "antelope") is the last survivor of a species native to North America, with the largest herd in Wyoming. Pronghorn meat is leaner, but similar in taste, to that of deer.

Other Game Animals
Bison (buffalo) is native to North America. Once about 60 million in number, bison were hunted almost to extinction by the 1890's. Currently there are more than 150,000 animals being raised across North America today.

Musk-ox is a heavy-set, shaggy-coated wild ox that lives in northern North America, the Arctic islands, and Greenland. The meat tastes similar to buffalo.

Collared Peccary (javelina) is a hoofed animal native to parts of Mexico, South America, and the southwest U.S. A substitute is fresh pork.

Rabbits sold for consumption in the U.S. are not North American cottontails, but are usually either crosses between New Zealand and Belgian varieties, Chinese rabbits, or Scottish hares.

Wild boar, along with feral (wild) hogs, are found in 23 states in the U.S. and are estimated to number over 2 million. Like our domestic swine, these animals are not native to North America, but were originally brought over from other continents. Originally domesticated and then released into the wild, these animals are now hybrids.

While some states have limited hunting seasons, most states consider them a nuisance and encourage hunting them for personal consumption.

Game Birds
The game bird industry in the U.S. raises millions of birds for sale to restaurants and direct to consumers. These include up to 10 million pheasants, 37 million quail (including 12 million Bobwhite), 4 million Chukar partridges, 1 million Mallard ducks, 200,000 wild turkeys, and several other bird species.

Wild Ducks - The Chinese were the first to raise wild ducks domestically for food. Today's domestic wild ducks are descendants of either the Muscovy or Mallard species. America's Long Island ducks are offspring of Peking ducks (a variety of Mallard) brought from China in the late 1800's. A young duck or duckling (usually under 8 weeks of age) has dark, tender meat and weighs about 3 ½ to 5 pounds. A mature duck is usually over 6 months of age and has tougher meat.

Goose - Geese were farm-raised in ancient Egypt, China, and India. Today's goose weighs between 5 and 18 pounds. A young bird of either sex ("goose" is the female of the species; "gander," the male) has tender meat, while a mature goose of either sex has tougher meat.

Guineafowl - This relative of the chicken and partridge, sometimes called a guinea hen or African pheasant, was thought to originate in Guinea, West Africa. A young guineafowl, about 11 weeks old, has tender meat, while a mature bird has tougher meat. Female guinea fowl are more tender than males. The meat is light red and slightly dry with a mild gamey flavor. Due to their small size - about 2 to 3 pounds, including giblets – guinea fowl are usually sold whole.

Partridge – There are no native partridge species in the United States. Most partridge in the market are from European or African varieties. The Grey partridge, a European species, was imported from Hungary and raised in England. Found as far away as the Middle East, this variety is sometimes called Hungarian partridge. Chukar is a partridge species from India.

Pheasant - Originally from Asia, the female of this medium-size game bird (weighing about 3 pounds) has more tender, plump, and juicy meat than the male, which weighs about 5 pounds. Young birds can be roasted, but older birds need moist heat because their flesh is drier and leaner.

Quail - American quail are known regionally by various names: Bobwhite, partridge, and quail (blue, California, mountain and Montezuma). American quail nest on the ground and are not related to the European quail of the partridge family. A ready-to-cook quail weighs about 3 to 7 ounces, including the giblets. Due to their small size, they are usually roasted and served whole. The meat is dark, but mild flavored.

Squab or Pigeon - This species originated in the Middle East and Asia, and is one of the oldest birds known to man. A squab is a young, immature pigeon about 4 weeks old. Because it is too young to fly, the meat is very tender. Squab usually weigh about 12 to 16 ounces, including giblets, and have dark, delicately flavored meat. They are usually stuffed whole and roasted. A pigeon has been allowed to mature and has tougher meat than a squab.

Wild Turkeys - Turkey is one of North America's native birds. The name "turkey" was originally applied to an African bird, now known as the guineafowl, which was believed to have originated in Turkey. When the Europeans came upon the American turkey, they thought it was the same bird as the African guinea fowl, and so gave it the name turkey, although the two species are quite distinct. Compared to their domestic counterparts, wild turkeys are leaner, less meaty, not as tender, and have a stronger flavor.

Are Game Animals Inspected by USDA?
Some game animals are inspected by USDA and others by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has mandatory inspection authority over all food products from cattle, sheep, swine, goats, horses, mules, and other equines, chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, ratites (emu, ostrich, and rhea), and squab. This includes processed products containing more than 3 percent raw meat or 2 percent or more cooked poultry meat.

Additionally, FSIS does voluntary inspection of reindeer, elk, antelope, water buffalo, bison, migratory water fowl (birds that swim such as ducks and geese), game birds, and
rabbits.

FDA has jurisdiction over imported fish, buffalo, rabbits, venison, wild game, and all other foods not covered by the Federal meat and poultry inspection laws. Meat and poultry exported from another country must meet all safety standards applied to foods produced in the United States, and this must be verified annually.

How Are Game Farm Raised?
Game animals are either raised on farms or ranches. If ranch raised, the animals are allowed to roam at will over hundreds of acres, foraging off foliage. Farm-raised game live in more confined outdoor areas and are fed grains such as wheat, alfalfa, or corn. What the animal eats can affect the taste of the meat.

Game bird species are raised separately from each other. Some birds consider birds from other species as intruders and will kill them.

The chicks need a clean, healthy environment, free of predators and parasites, with lots of clean, fresh water, fresh air, and feed. They are kept in warm buildings with floors covered with litter made of pine shavings, rice or peanut hulls, sugarcane fiber, and ground corncobs. Game birds are fed a diet similar to domestic poultry, typically a low-fat mix which is higher in protein than that fed to chickens. The feed may contain corn, alfalfa meal, wheat, soybean, meat bone scrap, whey, fish meal, and a vitamin-mineral mix. The FDA regulates animal feed.

When they are a few weeks old, game birds may be transferred to flight cages, typically 130 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 6½ feet high, with a floor cover of natural vegetation. There they must be protected from weather extremes, predators, people, and themselves. Access to a shed protects them from the elements.

Are Hormones and Antibiotics Used in Game Animal Production?
Hormones are not used in raising game birds or game animals; however, antibiotics may be used.

Wild birds and waterfowl are susceptible to many diseases and parasites, especially where large numbers are being raised in relatively small areas. The FDA approves medications that can be used to treat food animals. Very few drugs have been approved for game birds. Those approved are administered in their feed or water. The drugs are either antibiotics or anti-parasitics.

The FDA has strict guidelines for the use of drugs in animal production. If a drug is given, it must be used according to its labeling. Almost all these drugs require a "withdrawal" period -- usually up to 5 days -- from the time it is administered until it is legal to slaughter the animal or bird. This is so residues will not be in the meat. FSIS randomly samples the meat at slaughter and tests for any drug residues.

What Foodborne Bacteria Are Associated With Game?
As with any perishable meat, poultry, or fish, harmful bacteria, such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli, can be found on raw or undercooked game. They live in the intestinal tracts of game, livestock, poultry, dogs, cats, and other warm-blooded animals, and must be eaten to cause illness. Foodborne bacteria cannot enter the body through a skin cut.

There are about 2,000 species of Salmonella bacteria. Escherichia coli can colonize in the intestines of animals, which can contaminate muscle meat at slaughter. E. coli O157:H7 is a rare strain that produces large quantities of a potent toxin that forms in and causes severe damage to the lining of the intestine. One disease produced by it is called Hemorrhagic Colitis and is characterized by bloody diarrhea. Another disease, Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS), can cause kidney failure in the very young. A similar illness, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), may occur in adults.

Bacteria multiply rapidly in the "Danger Zone"— temperatures between 40 and 140 °F. Cross-contamination can occur if raw meat or its juices come in contact with cooked foods or foods that will be eaten raw, such as salad. Freezing does not kill bacteria. Cooking to 160 °F kills bacteria.

How Does Game Meat Differ from Domestic Meat?
Because their diets and activity levels are not the same as that of domestic animals and poultry, the meat of farm-raised game animals has a different flavor—stronger than domesticated species and milder than wild game. The factors that determine the meat's quality include the age of the animal (younger animals are more tender), the animal's diet, and the time of year the animal was harvested. (The best is in the fall, after a plentiful spring and summer feeding.)

Equally important is how the animal was handled in the field. The animal should be eviscerated within an hour of harvest, and the meat refrigerated within a few hours. Meat is damaged (and sometimes ruined) if it is not dressed, transported, and chilled properly.

In general, wild game is less tender than meat from domestic animals because the wild animals get more exercise and have less fat. Any fat is generally bad tasting and should be removed. For maximum tenderness, most game meat should be cooked slowly and not overdone. It can be cooked with moist heat by braising or with dry heat by roasting. Ways to keep game moist include basting, larding, or barding (see "Cooking Methods").

Are Game "Red" or "White" Meat?
Game birds are poultry and considered "white" meat. Because they are birds of flight, however, the breast meat is darker than domestic chicken and turkey (which stand a lot, but do little, if any, flying). This is because more oxygen is needed by muscles doing work, and the oxygen is delivered to those muscles by the red cells in the blood.

All game animals are "red" meat. One of the proteins in meat, myoglobin, holds the oxygen in the muscle, and gives the meat a darker color.

What Does "Natural" Mean?
All fresh meat qualifies as "natural." Products labeled "natural" cannot contain any artificial flavor or flavoring, coloring ingredient, chemical preservative, or any other artificial or synthetic ingredient. The product and its ingredients cannot be more than minimally processed (ground, for example). All products claiming to be "natural" should be accompanied by a brief statement explaining what is meant by the term "natural."

Some companies promote their game as "natural" because they claim the animals weren't exposed to antibiotics or hormones and were totally raised on a range instead of being "finished" in a feedlot.

Food Product Dating
Product dating is not required by Federal regulations. However, many stores and processors may voluntarily date packages of raw game or processed game products. If a calendar date is shown, there must be a phrase explaining the meaning of the date. It's not important if a date expires after freezing game because all foods stay safe while properly frozen.

How is Game Handled Safely?
FRESH GAME. Because the demand is not as high as for domestic meats, game is usually sold frozen in supermarkets. However, fresh game is sometimes available. Always select the meat just before checking out at the register. Put fresh game in a disposable plastic bag (if available) to contain any leakage that could cross-contaminate cooked foods or produce. Make the grocery store your last stop before going home.

At home, refrigerate game immediately at 40 °F or below. Cook or freeze (0 °F) game birds and ground game within 1 or 2 days; game animals, within 3 to 5 days. If kept frozen continuously, it will be safe indefinitely.

READY-PREPARED GAME. If picking up cooked game or other fully- cooked product from a restaurant or other foodservice outlet, be sure it is either hot or cold when you pick it up. Use hot food within 2 hours or cut it into several pieces and refrigerate in shallow, covered containers. Eat either cold or reheated to 165 °F (hot and steaming). It is safe to freeze ready-prepared game. For recommended storage times, see the chart.

Quantity to Buy
When buying large whole game birds, allow about 1 to 1½ pounds of raw product per person. For small game birds, such as quail, two whole birds per serving may be necessary. Raw boneless meat yields about 3 servings per pound after cooking. Estimate 3 to 4 ounces per person for fully-cooked products.

How Do You Reduce the "Gamey" Flavor?
The distinct game flavor of either birds or animals will be milder after soaking the meat overnight in the refrigerator in either a salt or vinegar solution.
* Salt solution - one tablespoon per quart of cold water
* Vinegar solution - one cup per quart of cold water
Use enough solution to cover the game completely. Discard the solution after soaking.

You can also marinate game to give it a savory flavor or to tenderize it. Always marinate it in the refrigerator (1 to 2 days for birds; 3 to 5 days for game animals). Boil used marinade before basting meat as it cooks or using as a sauce on the cooked meat. Discard any uncooked leftover marinade.

Cooking Methods
The tenderness of a particular cut of game is similar to the corresponding cut of domestically-raised meat or poultry. All game tends to be leaner than that of domesticated animals, which have been bred for tenderness and fat marbling. Overcooking can toughen game. You can use moist heat, basting, and larding or barding (inserting slivers of fat or wrapping in bacon) to help keep the meat tender during cooking. Fast searing over high heat can also work for smaller cuts, such as tenderloin medallions or rib chops.

Safe Defrosting
There are three safe ways to defrost frozen game: in the refrigerator, in cold water, and in the microwave. Never defrost on the counter. Whole birds or ground meat may take 1 to 2 days or longer to defrost in the refrigerator; roasts, several days. Once the raw poultry defrosts, it will be safe in the refrigerator an additional day or two before cooking. Meat and poultry thawed in the refrigerator may be safely refrozen without cooking it first.
To defrost game in cold water, do not remove store packaging. Be sure the packaging is airtight or put it in a leak-proof bag. Submerge the product in cold water, changing the water every 30 minutes. A whole game bird (3 to 4 pounds) or package of parts should defrost in 2 to 3 hours; larger amounts of game may take 4 to 6 hours.

When microwave-defrosting game, plan to cook it immediately after thawing because some areas of the meat may become warm and begin to cook during microwaving. Holding partially-cooked food is not recommended because any bacteria present would not have been destroyed.

Foods defrosted in the microwave or by the cold water method should be cooked before refreezing.

Partial Cooking
Never brown or partially cook game to refrigerate and finish cooking later because any bacteria present would not have been destroyed. It is safe to partially pre-cook or microwave game immediately before transferring it to a hot grill or other cooking appliance to finish cooking.

Can Safely-Cooked Game Be Pink?
Cooked muscle meats can be pink even when the meat has reached a safe internal temperature. If fresh game has reached 160 °F throughout, even though it may still be pink in the center, it should be safe. The pink color can be due to the cooking method, smoking, or added ingredients such as marinades. Cook ground meats and other cuts of game meat such as chops, steaks, and roasts to 160 °F to ensure destruction of foodborne bacteria and parasites.
Whole game birds are safe cooked to a minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer. Check the internal temperature in the innermost part of the thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast. For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook poultry to higher temperatures. Approximate cooking times for use in meal planning are given on the chart below

Approximate Game Cooking Times
TYPE OF GAME	ROAST	GRILL / FRY Direct heat	SMOKE Indirect heat*	BRAISE / STEW In liquid; covered
GAME BIRDS:
Whole bird, 4 to 6 lbs. (Do not stuff.)	350 °F 30 to 35 min./lb.	Not preferred	2½ hours	Not preferred
Breast or parts	350 °F 1 to 1¼ hrs.	20 to 40 min.	2 hours	60 to 75 min.
Whole small birds	350 °F 45 min.	30 min.	1 to 1½ hrs.	45 to 60 min.
GAME ANIMALS:
Rib Roast, bone in 4 to 6 lbs.	325 °F 27 to 30 min./lb.	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended
Rib Roast, boneless rolled 4 to 6 lbs.	32 to 38 min./lb.	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended
Chuck Roast, Brisket 3 to 4 lbs.	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended	Several hours	325° 2 to 3 hours
Round or Rump Roast 2½ to 4 lbs.	325 °F 35 to 40 min./lb.	18 to 25 min./lb.	2½ to 3 hours	325° 2 to 3 hours
Whole leg (boar, deer) 6 to 8 lbs.	375 °F 2 hours	Not recom- mended	3 to 4 hours	Not recom- mended
Tenderloin whole, 4 to 6 lbs.	425 °F 45 to 60 min. total	12 to 15 min./side	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended
Tenderloin half, 2 to 3 lbs.	425 °F 45 to 60 min. total	10 to 12 min./side	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended
Steaks, ¾ inch thick	Not recom- mended	6 to 7 min./side	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended
Ground meat patties	Not recom- mended	6 to 8 min./side	Not recom- mended	Not applicable
Meat loaf, 1 to 2 lbs.	350 °F 60 to 90 min.	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended	Not applicable
Stew or Shank Cross Cuts 1 to 1½ inch thick	Not recom- mended.	Not recom- mended	Not recom- mended	Cover with liquid; simmer 2 to 3 hours
Ribs, 4 inches	375 °F 20 min.	8 to 10 min./side	Not recom- mended	Parboil 1 hour; then grill or roast

Storage of Game
Product	Refrigerator 40 °F	Freezer 0 °F
Fresh game birds	1 to 2 days	6 months
Fresh game animal meat	3 to 5 days	6 to 9 months
Fresh organ meat (liver, heart, kidney, or tongue)	1 to 2 days	6 months
Cooked game; soups, stews, or casseroles containing them	3 to 4 days	2 to 3 months
Leftover takeout or restaurant food	3 to 4 days	2 to 3 months
Smoked game, Vacuum-sealed	2 weeks (or 1 week after "Use-By" date)	1 to 2 months
After opening	7 days	1 to 2 months
Canned game products (paté, soup, stew, etc.) Before opening, 2 to 5 years in pantry.	3 to 4 days after opening	2 to 3 months after opening

Ratites (Emu, Ostrich, and Rhea.
Red meat is now on the "wing" into innovative restaurants and some meat markets. The latest in meat products is from the "ratite" family of flightless birds. It's lean and tastes like beef, but contains much less fat. In fact, ratite meat is even lower in calories than chicken and turkey. Ratites have been around for 80 million years. Here's some information on the newest meat source in America.

What are Ratites?
Ratites ("RAT-tights") are a family of flightless birds with small wings and flat breastbones. Ostrich, emu ("E-mew") and rhea ("REE-ah") are members of this family. Ostrich is native to Africa; emu, to Australia; and rhea, to South America — particularly the grasslands of Argentina.

When fully grown, ostriches — the largest birds in the world — stand about seven to eight feet tall and can weigh 300 to 400 pounds; emu are about six feet tall and weigh 125 to 140 pounds. Adult rheas are about five feet tall and weigh 60 to 100 pounds. The birds are 95 percent usable as meat, feathers, oil and leather.

How are Ratites Raised?
Newly hatched chicks usually weigh about two pounds and are about 10 inches tall. Young ratites must be sheltered in a warm place for their first weeks of life. Adolescent and adult birds are allowed to roam freely in fenced pastures or pens. Ratites need daily exercise to avoid leg and digestive problems.

The closely woven wire fences must be 6 to 8 feet high because ratites can leap over a 5-foot fence. Ratites are fed on grain supplemented by pasture. Ostrich was the first ratite to be raised in the U.S. There are now about 1,000 ostrich growers in the U.S. raising about 100,000 birds. Emu are now raised in at least 43 states by about 10,000 families (3,000 are in Texas). The emu population is about a million. Rheas are the newest U.S. farm-raised ratite, but at over 15,000 birds, are the largest population of farmed rheas.

Are Ratites USDA Inspected?
Yes. Effective April 22, 2002, ratites are under mandatory USDA inspection. Establishments that slaughter ratites are required to implement and validate sanitation standard operating procedures and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems, as required by mandatory poultry inspection regulations. Previously, voluntary inspection was available for ostrich beginning in December 1991. Ratites are slaughtered at about 10 to 13 months of age.

Retail Cuts of Fresh Ratites
Ratite meat is sold as steaks, fillet, medallions (small coin-shaped pieces of meat), roasts and ground meat. The most tender meat comes from the thigh or "fan"; meat also comes from the drum and forequarter.

Are Ratites "Red" or "White" Meat?
Although ratites are poultry, the pH of their flesh is similar to beef. Therefore, they are classified as "red" meat. The raw meat is a very dark cherry red. After cooking, the meat looks like beef and the flavor is similar but a little sweeter.

What Cooking Methods Can Be Used?
The tenderness and texture of farmed ratite meat lends itself to light grilling, pan frying or roasting. However, because ratite meat is so low in fat, care must be taken not to overcook it.

Since ratites are classified as red meats, steaks and roasts can be safely cooked to medium rare (145 °F) or to medium (160 °F); ground meat should be cooked to 160 °F.

What is the Cost Per Pound?
At this time, emu, ostrich and rhea meat are specialty items available in restaurants and some stores. The meat is more expensive than beef, pork, chicken and turkey. However, the price will become more reasonable as the quantity of this meat becomes more widely available.